The history of coffee

Ever since its migration from north-east Africa to Arabia many hundreds of years ago, this vital bean has played a multifaceted role in moulding history. That short hop across the Red Sea helped alter social, political and economic life not only in Africa and the Middle East, but in mainland Europe. Britain and the Americas too. Coffee has made the fortunes and misfortunes of many, oiled the wheels of communication, inspired creative minds, stimulated the tired, and, for countless imbibers the world over, become a daily necessity.

Coffee is often referred to by the name of the country it comes from or that country's most important port. Santos, for example, is Brazil's main port. It was founded in 1543 and by the middle of the nineteenth century was a leading coffee port, handling slaves who were imported to work on both sugar and coffee plantations. Other Latin American coffees come from Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. Blue Mountain, said to be one of the best in the world, comes from Jamaica. Kona is grown on the islands of Hawaii.

The Kenya Peaberry is a small bean, and the coffee grown near Kilimanjaro is said to be softer in flavour than ordinary Kenya. From the Far East come coffees from New Guinea and Java; when the beans are matured, some are called Old Brown Java or Old Indonesian. India produces Monsoon Malabar and Mysore. The coffee called mocha usually comes from Ethiopia.

There are two main types, arabica or robusta, and the best are said to be grown on volcanic soil 3,000 to 6,000 feet (914 to 1,828 meters) above sea level.

The way the beans are then treated affects the flavour. Some are washed and then pulped to remove the flesh of the berries, others are dried before the pulp is removed. The beans are then roasted, and the degree of roasting also influences the flavour. Once the beans are roasted, they begin to lose flavour, and flavour loss is hastened even more if they are ground. Many people prefer to grind their own coffee and try to obtain it as freshly roasted as possible.

The coffee cherry - The coffee fruit is called a cherry primarily because it is about the same size, shape and colour as an actual cherry. There are normally two beans per cherry, facing each other's flat side, like peanut halves.

Many people derive as much pleasure from brewing coffee as from drinking it. For some, making coffee is a time-honoured traditional ritual, and the satisfaction is even greater with the knowledge that one is using the same equipment that yielded cups of the much-loved liquid to past generations. Other people delight in acquiring and using the latest trendy
gadgets, and certainly coffee brewing and serving offer scope for constant design innovations, be they practical or aesthetic, or both.

The art of coffee drinking

From the moment coffee-drinking took hold, an enormous amount of ingenuity and effort went into perfecting the art of brewing. Not content with the simple act of pouring hot water over grounds and letting it sit, inventive minds in Europe and the United States managed to produce an astonishing variety of equipment - drips, filter, percolators and pressure machines, to name but a few.

Considering that there are a limited number of ways that coffee and water can be combined, it is amazing how many factors there are in brewing that make a difference to the resulting coffee flavour. But then it seems rather miraculous that anyone ever thought of combining the two substances anyway. Almost certainly, the first means of brewing coffee was based on boiling the beans in water, although it was probably the entire coffee cherry that was first boiled. The first Europeans undoubtedly boiled their coffee, but not in a device like that retained throughout Islam for perhaps 600 years.

Brewing equipment

Turkish ibrik

The only real difficulty in making Turkish coffee is obtaining the right blend. The traditional Middle Eastern concoction has a very distinctive taste, due primarily to a penchant for rio-y flavoured Brazilian beans, which are usually blended with Ethiopian ones. Many people erroneously believe that Turkish coffee is dark- roasted, but the pulverized coffee is usually a reddish-brown shade, not dark at all. The traditional brewing vessel, the ibrik (or Greek briki), is a small, long-handled copper- or brass-plated pan with a narrow neck.

The Cafetière (plunger pot)

Using a plunger pot

• Preheat the glass cylinder by filling it with hot water; and while more water is heating for brewing, pour the water from the glass cylinder into a measuring jug and calculate the amount of coffee needed, working at 55 g/10 tbsp per 1 litre/4 cups of water.
• Dry the glass and place the dry coffee in it. When the water for brewing is almost at boiling point (just before it boils or just after), pour it over the dry coffee.
• Stir it very well with a large spoon. The more freshly ground the coffee, the more it has a tendency to float and seems more resistant to saturation by the water, so stir thoroughly to incorporate all the dry coffee.
• Prop the sieve device, with the lid above it, just inside the top of the cylinder for about four minutes. When the brewing time is up, hold the lid down with one hand to stabilize the plunger shaft and, with the other hand, slowly push down the plunger. Serve the coffee as soon as possible.

Filter coffee machines

With filter coffee, the brew is clear and clean, and a stopwatch is no longer necessary, as the timing is all down to gravity, once the correct grind is obtained. Because the contact time between the ground coffee and the water is limited, a fine degree of grind is required for the proper amount of extraction to take place, but take care not to use too fine a grind or use too much coffee in the brew basket, lest the filter clog, causing over-extraction.

The invention of the electric drip machine about forty years ago meant that filter lovers were no longer required to stand over a filter device. The paper filter is cheaper to buy and maintain, easier to clean, requires less space and is far easier to control. The only equipment necessary is a kettle; a filter and filter paper, or a metal or synthetic filter which requires no paper; a jug for catching the liquid (a thermal jug [carafe] or vacuum flask [thermos] solves the problem of keeping the brew hot); and a spoon (wooden is best) with which to stir.

Plastic filter cones or baskets come in various sizes, and it is important to have a brew basket that corresponds to the number of cups to be brewed.

Percolated coffee

For many years, the “modern” means of making coffee was the percolator, which sat on a burner of the stove.

Today’s percolators are electric, but are still based on the same brewing principles: fresh, cold water in the bottom of the jug is brought to the boil, and passes up the hollow tube and out of the top, overflowing the perforated cover of the brew basket. It then filters through the dry coffee in the basket and drops back down into the bottom of the jug in the form of liquid coffee.

Contrary to the opinion of many connoisseurs, percolators can make excellent coffee, but the brewing cycle must occur only once. Better brands of electric percolators achieve this by switching to a lower heat after one cycle, which usually takes six to seven minutes. Remove the brew basket after one cycle. In spite of percolator brewing being basically a filter-drip method, a medium grind of coffee is required, to keep potentially disastrous over-extraction to a minimum. Again the ratio of coffee to water should be about 55 g /10 tbsp per 1 litre/4 cups.

All about Espresso

The simplest and most accurate definition of espresso is “hot water being forced under pressure through very finely ground, dark-roasted coffee”. The idea of using steam to propel the brewing water for coffee was the brainchild of a Frenchman, Edward Loysel de Santais, used the same principle to produce a machine that could make larger amounts of coffee; he exhibited it at the Paris Exposition of 1855. In Italy, around the turn of the century, changes were made that enabled several individual cups – instead of one large pot of coffee – to be brewed by steam pressure at a speed which gave rise to the name “espresso”.

Espresso types

Espresso is first a method of brewing coffee; second, it is the coffee produced by the brewing method; and third, it is a style of serving that coffee: for example, cappuccino is made with espresso coffee, but because its milk and greater volume, it would never be called espresso.

Espresso (normale) – Made from 1 tablespoon of very finely ground dark-roasted coffee extracted by highly pressurized water heated to 93-96°C water, the basic cup of espresso is approximately 40-50 ml (never more than 50 ml) of strong black coffee served in a
60 ml cup.

Espresso macchiato – This is a normal espresso “marked” or “stained” with about 15 ml of foamed milk on top

Espresso romano – This is a normal espresso served with a small piece of lemon peel. Brazil’s cafezinho, its espresso equivalent, is also often served with a slice of lemon.

Espresso ristretto – A basic espresso served in an espresso cup, but restricted in volume to about 25 ml. Espresso ristretto is strong because it is made from the same amount of coffee as a normal espresso but is less diluted with water.

Espresso corretto – A cup of normal espresso laced with an alcoholic spirit or liqueur; a northern Italian breakfast favourite is espresso “corrected” with grappa.

Espresso con panna or espresso tazza d’oro – Espresso macchiato with a touch of luxury from the addition of whipped cream instead of foamed milk.

Espresso doppio – Two doses of espresso coffee brewed in a two-group filter holder but dispensed into one 150 ml cup; approximately the same volume as an espresso lungo, but twice the coffee, thus twice the caffeine, with less dilution. A real jolt of energy.

Espresso lungo or Caffé Americano – A normal serving of espresso which is lengthened with hot water after it has been brewed to a volume of about 75-95 ml. The body of espresso lungo is like that of filter coffee, and it is usually served in a 150 ml (small cappuccino) cup.

Flavourings and garnishes

Of many tastes that seem to be natural partners with coffee, the most obvious are the flavours of milk or cream. Depending on the drink being concocted, the choice of milk or cream is wide. A simple cup of a high-grown Arabica coffee, medium-roasted so as not to have lost its acidity, is wonderful with a splash of milk or cream. The acidity is slightly mellowed by the alkaline milk and the delicate, subtle Arabica flavour is enhanced.

Milk and cream – Many people making espresso-based drinks eventually ask the question, “Which milk is best for frothing?” as almost everyone has difficulty learning to froth or steam milk. There is disagreement on this topic. Any milk can be frothed, but some experts advocate skimmed (skim) milk because it froths very quickly; unfortunately it also tastes like cardboard! Other choices include homogenized and heat-treated milks. Semi-skimmed (low fat) works adequately, but for real Italian-style flavour nothing beats pure whole milk or any rich, creamy milk is superb for complementing the flavour of espresso. Experience will show that the temperature factor is perhaps as important as the fat content; the milk to be steamed should be very cold.

Whipped cream should not be used as a substitute for milk intended for steaming, but it works well as a coffee garnish. Double (heavy) cream, especially with a tablespoon of milk to lessen the risk of over-whipping, adds richness and body.

Frothing milk with an electric espresso machine:

• First, pour the very cold milk into a cold half-litre metal jug (pitcher), with straight sides of sloping inwards towards the top.
• To steam the milk, insert the steam nozzle to nearly the bottom of the jug, open the steam valve fully and rotate the nozzle around in the milk for 5-8 seconds. (The bottom of the milk jug should start to feel warm to the touch.)
• Lower the jug until the nozzle is just below the milk surface; when the surface just begins to froth, place the nozzle slightly lower in the milk and turn the steam down. A deep purring sound signifies that the milk is steaming, and a few seconds is all that is needed
for the milk to rise in volume.
• When fine, smooth foam has just formed, close the steam valve and put the jug aside until ready to use. Cool if desired. Take care to stop frothing the milk before big airy bubbles form.

Sugar – Sugar is an ingredient in any coffee drinks, not only to stabilize milk, but also to off-set the bitterness, which is almost always present to some degree in recipes using cold coffee. Various sugars have different tastes depending on whether they are refined (all white sugars) or unrefined (“raw”) cane sugar. Unrefined sugar has more flavour because of the molasses content. Other brown sugars are made from white refined sugar to which molasses is added. Caster sugar is excellent in recipes because it is quick-dissolving. Chunky rock crystals are simply lumps of amber-
coloured refined sugar.

Chocolate – In any form and any colour, chocolate provides a superb accompanying flavour for coffee, so much so that many coffee drinks include the word “mocha”, which can imply a combination with chocolate. Powdered chocolate or cocoa powder (which is slightly bitter) can be sprinkled on top of any foamy, milky coffee to produce a happy combination. Chocolate mints or plain chocolate wafers make a lovely garnish, as do chocolate-covered whole coffee beans.

Essences and flavourings – Vanilla, in the form of syrup, powder or even vanilla sugar, goes well with coffee. A drop of vanilla essence (extract) can convert an ordinary drink into an addictive elixir. Many people consider cinnamon, either in the natural stick form, as an essence, or more commonly as a sprinkling powder, a suitable coffee accompaniment.

Fruit, nuts and spices – Fruit flavour possibilities include banana, blackcurrant, blueberry, cherry, coconut, lemon, orange, peach, pineapple, raspberry and strawberry. Alternatively, fruit pieces or slices can be used in the drink or as a garnish. Fruit syrups, concentrates and essences are easy ways of obtaining a coffee and fruit flavour mix. Nuts seem to provide a more indisputably happy marriage with coffee, and the tastes of hazelnut, almond, pecan and even peanut, obtained from powders, essences, or the nuts themselves used as garnish, work very well in coffee drinks. Ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, nutmeg and cumin are spices which might be overlooked as coffee companions, but those flavours, if used in small proportions, provide a subtle difference to a coffee drink.

Alcohol – Coffee and alcohol can be a delightful combination. In general orange-based liqueurs and orange-flavoured brandy are wonderful coffee partners. Numerous variations on the established Irish coffee are possible with Scotch whiskey or American bourbon. In fact, used in the right proportions with usually quite strong coffee, there are few alcoholic beverages that would not make a suitable addition to a coffee-based concoction